Child Migration(s) in the Global South
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People living in many parts of the so-called Global North, often consider immigration as a threat to their home country. It is the mass media that, with pictures like the one on the right, tries to make us believe that migration happens only one-directional. This direction is widely believed to be from the Global South towards the Global North. Many are not even aware of the large number of people who migrate among countries of the Global South. This type of migration is called South-South migration. The aim of this blog is to inform its readers about the different forms of child migrations that can be found in the Global South, tell them something about child agency and uncover some regional differences between the very diverse regions of this large part of the world. Due to the broadness of the topic, readers have to be aware that certain aspects are generalized. Nevertheless, general statistics and examples must not be carelessly applied to all developing countries in the Global South, as this part of the world, just like the Global North, is by far not homogenous.
Some Statistics...
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A study, conducted in 2007 for the World Bank, has found that there are a total of 191 million immigrants around the world out of which 78 million people are residing in a country belonging to the Global South. In other words, these numbers show that two out of five immigrants never leave the developing world as it is estimated that almost all of the 78 million immigrants have migrated from other developing countries. Figures released only years later by UNICEF in 2013 even speak of an estimated 214 million people on the move, 3% of the world’s population that live outside their countries of birth. Many people in the Global North do not realise that the amount of people moving within the developing world is almost as high (34% according to UNICEF in 2013) as the South-North migration (35%). (Follow the link for more statistics and numbers concerning children, adolescents and South-South Migration: http://www.globalmigrationgroup.org/sites/default/files/uploads/gmg-topics/mig-data/Brief-Children-Adolescents-South-South-Migration.pdf)
In fact, the World Bank study has also found that almost 80 percent of the migration flows in the South take place between neighbouring countries. The UNHCR Statistical Yearbook of 2012 shows that for instance almost half of that year’s new Congolese asylum claims were lodged either in Rwanda (17,100) or Burundi (8,200). Similarly, about half of all new Eritrean asylum claims were registered in Sudan.
For the whole section on Asylum and Refugee Status Determination from the UNHCR Statistical Yearbook click here: http://www.unhcr.org/52a723299.html
In fact, the World Bank study has also found that almost 80 percent of the migration flows in the South take place between neighbouring countries. The UNHCR Statistical Yearbook of 2012 shows that for instance almost half of that year’s new Congolese asylum claims were lodged either in Rwanda (17,100) or Burundi (8,200). Similarly, about half of all new Eritrean asylum claims were registered in Sudan.
For the whole section on Asylum and Refugee Status Determination from the UNHCR Statistical Yearbook click here: http://www.unhcr.org/52a723299.html
The figures released by UNICEF in 2013 have also open up another debate, one which is lead comparably little in the context of migration, namely that of Child Migrants. UNICEF estimates that out of the 214 million immigrants, 33 million are children and adolescents under the age of 20, who have migrated as part of a family or unaccompanied for various reasons. For us Westerners it is very difficult to understand why the number of children who migrate in countries of the Global South is that high and makes up a remarkable amount of the total number of people on the move in the South. The highest proportion of child and adolescent migrants over the total migrant population is found in Africa, followed by Asia, Oceania, Europe and the Americas.
Different forms of Child Migration...
When talking about Migration or more specifically Child Migration in the Global South it is crucial to understand that it has many different faces, takes on many different forms and can impact a child's life in very different ways.
In his paper: The Impact of Migration on Children in Developing Countries Rossi from the Harvard University suggests that we can very broadly identify two different groups, with several subgroups, of children that are affected by migration. He clarifies that with the term affected children one refers to children and young people below the age of 18, whose survival, well-being or development is essentially influenced by migration. The first of the two groups contains children, who actively migrate, meaning who leave their country of birth for whatever reason. Subgroups divide this group of children into the following: Children who migrate alone; Children who are accompanied by a legal guardian; Children who migrate by choice; Children who migrate by force; Children who are sent to live a foster family (often relatives). The second broad group of children that Rossi identifies contains those who are not actively migrating but those that are affected by migration in the sense that they are left behind by migrating parents. This can mean that either one parent or both parents leave their home permanently or for seasonal work in order to send remittances to improve their child’s/children’s lifestyle. In contrast to the first group which she names Migrant Children, she calls this group of children affected by migration Children left Behind.
In his paper: The Impact of Migration on Children in Developing Countries Rossi from the Harvard University suggests that we can very broadly identify two different groups, with several subgroups, of children that are affected by migration. He clarifies that with the term affected children one refers to children and young people below the age of 18, whose survival, well-being or development is essentially influenced by migration. The first of the two groups contains children, who actively migrate, meaning who leave their country of birth for whatever reason. Subgroups divide this group of children into the following: Children who migrate alone; Children who are accompanied by a legal guardian; Children who migrate by choice; Children who migrate by force; Children who are sent to live a foster family (often relatives). The second broad group of children that Rossi identifies contains those who are not actively migrating but those that are affected by migration in the sense that they are left behind by migrating parents. This can mean that either one parent or both parents leave their home permanently or for seasonal work in order to send remittances to improve their child’s/children’s lifestyle. In contrast to the first group which she names Migrant Children, she calls this group of children affected by migration Children left Behind.
Migrant Children
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The group, Rossi refers to as Migrant Children, is as mentioned before divided into various different forms of child migrants. The first of these subgroups that I want to elaborate on are Child Refugees or in other words, child migrants who have not migrated for economic or personal reasons but because their life or freedom was threatened by several possible factors in their place of residence, such as war or religious persecution. The report on Child Migrants released by UNICEF in 2007, which I have quoted in the introduction shows that children represent an important component of the refugee population. Of the estimated 14.2 million refuges worldwide, 41 per cent are believed to be children under the age of 18. According to the UNHCR, which groups all of its varied refugee populations (including asylum seekers and Internally Displaced People) into the larger category of “population of concern,” children and adolescents represent the majority of persons of concern in Africa (roughly 56%). Countries where the proportion of refugee children exceeds the average of 56% are Angola (69%), Togo (64%), Guinea (63%), Burundi (62%), Rwanda (61%), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (61%) and Sudan (60%). Furthermore, children below the age of 18 represent more than half (55%) of the camp populations.
Unlike Child Refugees, most other Migrant Children migrate for economic, financial or personal reasons. They do so either on their own to support their family that stays at their original place of residence or to improve their own future prospects. In many cases children also accompany their parents on their own quest for a better life.
Independent Child Migrants
Apart from economic and financial reasons, many Independent Child Migrants have other motivations for leaving their home. A very important reason for child movements in the Global South is connected to the comparably high mortality in developing countries and the fact that a lot more children become orphans at younger ages than their counterparts in the Global North. The loss of one or both parents often initiates child movements to a foster family, mostly relatives. A study conducted in Bangladesh found out that the loss of a parent was the second most common reason for a child’s decision to move (34 percent), after searching for a better future (49 percent). Even though research proves that poverty is the main reason for a child’s decision to move, there seem to be other reasons as well. Neglect, insufficient care or conflicts with their legal guardians initiate many children to run away from their parents. A study consisting of interviews with child migrants in India carried out by Dr. Vegard Iversen of the University of Manchester shows that conflicts between fathers and increasingly assertive sons were catalysts for autonomous child labour migration.
Unlike Child Refugees, most other Migrant Children migrate for economic, financial or personal reasons. They do so either on their own to support their family that stays at their original place of residence or to improve their own future prospects. In many cases children also accompany their parents on their own quest for a better life.
Independent Child Migrants
Apart from economic and financial reasons, many Independent Child Migrants have other motivations for leaving their home. A very important reason for child movements in the Global South is connected to the comparably high mortality in developing countries and the fact that a lot more children become orphans at younger ages than their counterparts in the Global North. The loss of one or both parents often initiates child movements to a foster family, mostly relatives. A study conducted in Bangladesh found out that the loss of a parent was the second most common reason for a child’s decision to move (34 percent), after searching for a better future (49 percent). Even though research proves that poverty is the main reason for a child’s decision to move, there seem to be other reasons as well. Neglect, insufficient care or conflicts with their legal guardians initiate many children to run away from their parents. A study consisting of interviews with child migrants in India carried out by Dr. Vegard Iversen of the University of Manchester shows that conflicts between fathers and increasingly assertive sons were catalysts for autonomous child labour migration.
Children Left Behind
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It might seem odd to broach the issue of Children left Behind in the context of Child Migration in the Global South as these children are not experiencing mobility themselves but are only affected by it. However, I think it is crucial to include this group of children, as they constitute a major part of the overall number of children affected by migration in the Global South.
Unlike in the Global North, children in the Global South are much more used to the experience of living in a family with at least one parent away for long periods of time. The Whitehead and Hashim Report from 2005 estimates that the percentage of children living in migrant households is as high as 40% in rural Bangladesh, 50 to 60% in rural Tanzania, and 80% in Mali.
The reason for parents to leave their children and their home behind is usually the lack of well paid jobs near their residence. This is a phenomenon that can mostly be observed in rural areas of the Global South. The work they find after leaving their homes often enables Migrant Parents to sent remittances to their families which are supposed to improve the life conditions, diet and access to education of their children while preventing them from having to work themselves. Investigations by the World Bank in 2005 have shown that in the last decade, remittances have emerged as the second largest source of funding for developing countries. It was found that migrants sent a total of $232 billion in remittances worldwide out of which far more than half ($167 billion) was sent to or transferred within developing countries. This number is more than twice as high as that paid to developing countries by the official development aid or even more significant, ten times as high as that of private capital transfers.
After establishing the relevance of this form of migration in the context I'm dealing with, I want to look at a number of advantages and disadvantages that this form of migration has for the Children left Behind.
Adavantages:
By sending remittances home to their children, child-labour is reduced in developing countries. This positive effect depends significantly upon the area in which the child lives. Research by Simone Bertoli in 2007 has shown that in urban areas, where children generally work less in family-run activities, child labour is significantly reduced. In rural areas, where children are much more likely to be involved in family-run businesses, the influence of remittances sent back to them has a smaller effect on their economic activity. This can be proven with a study conducted in Ecuador which found out that nearly 90% of the working children in rural areas are employed for household farming, while in urban areas the percentage of working children employed in family-run businesses is (only) 50% (Bertoli 2007).
A second advantage of remittances is the improvement of educational opportunities for the Children left Behind due to an increase in the familie's budget. Recent studies have proven that there seems to be a connection between children who’s parents have migrated and low drop-out rates as well as better grades. Nevertheless, it is again estimated that the positive effect of remittances on reduced school drop-outs is four times larger among urban than among rural households. (Hanson and Woodruff 2003 & Cox-Edwards and Ureta 2003)
To read both studies, click on the following links:
http://irps.ucsd.edu/assets/022/8772.pdf (Hanson & Woodruff)
http://www.uh.edu/~adkugler/Cox&Ureta.pdf (Cox-Edwards & Ureta)
Disadvantages:
Other studies, however, paint a very different picture and point to some possible disadvantages that Children left Behind have to suffer from. The most apparent disadvantage of not having one or both parents around is that it is a big psychological burden for young children and adolescence that can influence many different areas of a child’s life. Areas that suffer most are the performance at school and the physical and psychological health. All of these issues result from a lack of parental care and too much responsibility within the family at a young age.
For further reading follow the link for a study by McKenzie and Rapoport on Migration and Education Inequality in Rural Mexico. http://www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2010/06912.pdf
Unlike in the Global North, children in the Global South are much more used to the experience of living in a family with at least one parent away for long periods of time. The Whitehead and Hashim Report from 2005 estimates that the percentage of children living in migrant households is as high as 40% in rural Bangladesh, 50 to 60% in rural Tanzania, and 80% in Mali.
The reason for parents to leave their children and their home behind is usually the lack of well paid jobs near their residence. This is a phenomenon that can mostly be observed in rural areas of the Global South. The work they find after leaving their homes often enables Migrant Parents to sent remittances to their families which are supposed to improve the life conditions, diet and access to education of their children while preventing them from having to work themselves. Investigations by the World Bank in 2005 have shown that in the last decade, remittances have emerged as the second largest source of funding for developing countries. It was found that migrants sent a total of $232 billion in remittances worldwide out of which far more than half ($167 billion) was sent to or transferred within developing countries. This number is more than twice as high as that paid to developing countries by the official development aid or even more significant, ten times as high as that of private capital transfers.
After establishing the relevance of this form of migration in the context I'm dealing with, I want to look at a number of advantages and disadvantages that this form of migration has for the Children left Behind.
Adavantages:
By sending remittances home to their children, child-labour is reduced in developing countries. This positive effect depends significantly upon the area in which the child lives. Research by Simone Bertoli in 2007 has shown that in urban areas, where children generally work less in family-run activities, child labour is significantly reduced. In rural areas, where children are much more likely to be involved in family-run businesses, the influence of remittances sent back to them has a smaller effect on their economic activity. This can be proven with a study conducted in Ecuador which found out that nearly 90% of the working children in rural areas are employed for household farming, while in urban areas the percentage of working children employed in family-run businesses is (only) 50% (Bertoli 2007).
A second advantage of remittances is the improvement of educational opportunities for the Children left Behind due to an increase in the familie's budget. Recent studies have proven that there seems to be a connection between children who’s parents have migrated and low drop-out rates as well as better grades. Nevertheless, it is again estimated that the positive effect of remittances on reduced school drop-outs is four times larger among urban than among rural households. (Hanson and Woodruff 2003 & Cox-Edwards and Ureta 2003)
To read both studies, click on the following links:
http://irps.ucsd.edu/assets/022/8772.pdf (Hanson & Woodruff)
http://www.uh.edu/~adkugler/Cox&Ureta.pdf (Cox-Edwards & Ureta)
Disadvantages:
Other studies, however, paint a very different picture and point to some possible disadvantages that Children left Behind have to suffer from. The most apparent disadvantage of not having one or both parents around is that it is a big psychological burden for young children and adolescence that can influence many different areas of a child’s life. Areas that suffer most are the performance at school and the physical and psychological health. All of these issues result from a lack of parental care and too much responsibility within the family at a young age.
For further reading follow the link for a study by McKenzie and Rapoport on Migration and Education Inequality in Rural Mexico. http://www10.iadb.org/intal/intalcdi/PE/2010/06912.pdf
Agency
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Across the world, there are different conceptualizations of childhood. Some of them look at children as simply passive. It has been argued that the idea of a 'passive' child is implied or constructed by western ideologies of childhood which stress childhood as a period of dependence. Another way to look at children, however, is to consider them as beings with agency, an idea that is quite common in studies of children in developing countries. This point of view is especially important to understand how the decision of children to migrate independently in the Global South is initiated.
As mentioned before, the Global South is an extremely diverse cultural setting, which results in very different decision making processes and different levels of child agency. It also has to be noticed that in the context of independent child migration in the Global South, which is motivated by the wish for a better future, we usually speak of migration within one’s country of birth. This can either be so called rural to rural migration, which is often initiated by seasonal work, or it can be rural to city migration. I will distinguish between two different examples, one taken from the African context, namely Ghana, and the other one from a South-East Asian context, namely Bangladesh.
Like in many other African countries, children in Ghana have an age-and gender specific role within their family, which is adjusted the older they get. This role is usually connected with work on the families’ household farm. By the age of fourteen, children usually start carrying out the same tasks as adults and thus loose their status as children. Children and adults are somehow interdependent on each other, one could even call it an intergenerational contract, which is an important aspect in the decision making process concerning the question whether to migrate or not. According to a study, young children (ten or younger) in Ghana migrate out of the recognition for their obligations to seniors and to their extended kin, fulfilling the intergenerational contract in a different setting than home. Children above the age of fourteen however, often get in conflict with their parents, as they start pursuing their own future prospects and slowly break out of the intergenerational contract.
As fostering is a very important cultural aspect in the whole of West Africa, children are also often send to live with and work for their relatives and, as surveys have shown, are mostly happy to be sent.
As mentioned before, the Global South is an extremely diverse cultural setting, which results in very different decision making processes and different levels of child agency. It also has to be noticed that in the context of independent child migration in the Global South, which is motivated by the wish for a better future, we usually speak of migration within one’s country of birth. This can either be so called rural to rural migration, which is often initiated by seasonal work, or it can be rural to city migration. I will distinguish between two different examples, one taken from the African context, namely Ghana, and the other one from a South-East Asian context, namely Bangladesh.
Like in many other African countries, children in Ghana have an age-and gender specific role within their family, which is adjusted the older they get. This role is usually connected with work on the families’ household farm. By the age of fourteen, children usually start carrying out the same tasks as adults and thus loose their status as children. Children and adults are somehow interdependent on each other, one could even call it an intergenerational contract, which is an important aspect in the decision making process concerning the question whether to migrate or not. According to a study, young children (ten or younger) in Ghana migrate out of the recognition for their obligations to seniors and to their extended kin, fulfilling the intergenerational contract in a different setting than home. Children above the age of fourteen however, often get in conflict with their parents, as they start pursuing their own future prospects and slowly break out of the intergenerational contract.
As fostering is a very important cultural aspect in the whole of West Africa, children are also often send to live with and work for their relatives and, as surveys have shown, are mostly happy to be sent.
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In contrast to Ghana, only 7 % of the children who migrate to different parts of the country in Bangladesh stated that they are doing so in order to support their family. Instead, 49% of all child migrants named a desire for a better future as their primary motivation. Another striking difference seems to be that 55% stated that they have made the decision to migrate on their own without any parental influence while in only 19% of the cases the parents actively decided for their children. The most important reason for these two very different patters seems to be that in contrast to Ghanaians living in rural areas, many Bangladeshis are landless and thus have no need for their children’s help in the same way that Ghanaian families do. Many are furthermore too poor to effort
an education for their child, which leaves many young Bangladeshis unoccupied
and strengthens their wish to improve their own circumstances.
To read both studies in more detail click on the following link:
http://www.migrationdrc.org/publications/working_papers/WP-T24.pdf
Even if these examples are heavily generalized, they show how within the Global South, different cultural and social structures lead to very different patterns of child agency and Child Migration(s).
To read both studies in more detail click on the following link:
http://www.migrationdrc.org/publications/working_papers/WP-T24.pdf
Even if these examples are heavily generalized, they show how within the Global South, different cultural and social structures lead to very different patterns of child agency and Child Migration(s).